ÿþ<HTML> <HEAD> <META HTTP-EQUIV="www.athleticinsight.com/Vol6Iss3/ExplanatoryStructure.htm" NAME="description" CONTENT="Athletic Insight - Article. "> <META HTTP-EQUIV="www.athleticinsight.com/Vol6Iss3/ExplanatoryStructure.htm" NAME="keywords" CONTENT="attribution, qualitative, reliability, sport, sports, psychology, sport psychology, athletics, athlete, mind, mental, performance, performances, enhancement, introduction, reference, references, conclusion, conclusions, abstract, abstracts, article, articles"> <TITLE>Athletic Insight - Attributing To Positive And Negative Sporting Outcomes: A Structural Analysis</TITLE> </HEAD> <BODY BGCOLOR="#FFFFFF" LINK="#0000FF" VLINK="#8040C0" ALINK="#FF0000"> <P ALIGN="center"></P> <DIV ALIGN="left"> <P ALIGN="center"><IMG SRC="../Images/Image2.jpg" ALT="Athletic Insight - The Online Journal of Sport Psychology" BORDER=0></P></DIV> <P ALIGN="center"></P> <P ALIGN="center"><B><FONT SIZE=5>Attributing To Positive And Negative Sporting Outcomes: A Structural Analysis </FONT></P> <P ALIGN="center"><I><FONT SIZE=4>A.J. Ross, J.B. Davies</B> <BR>Centre for Applied Social Psychology <BR>Strathclyde University <P ALIGN="center"><I><FONT SIZE=4><B>P. Clarke</B> <BR>Scottish School of Sport Studies <BR>Strathclyde University </FONT></I></P> <TABLE ALIGN="CENTER"BORDER=8 CELLSPACING=4 CELLPADDING=8 WIDTH=360> <TR><TD VALIGN="TOP"> <P ALIGN="CENTER"><A HREF="ExplanatoryStructure.htm#ABSTRACT" TARGET="_self"><B>ABSTRACT</B></A></TD> </TR> <TR><TD VALIGN="TOP"> <P ALIGN="CENTER"><A HREF="ExplanatoryStructure.htm#Introduction" TARGET="_self"><B>Introduction</B></A></TD> </TR> <TR><TD VALIGN="TOP"> <P ALIGN="CENTER"><A HREF="ExplanatoryStructure.htm#Study1" TARGET="_self"><B>Study 1</B></A></TD> </TR> <TR><TD VALIGN="TOP"> <P ALIGN="CENTER"><A HREF="ExplanatoryStructure.htm#Study2" TARGET="_self"><B>Study 2</B></A></TD> </TR> <TR><TD VALIGN="TOP"> <P ALIGN="CENTER"><A HREF="ExplanatoryStructure.htm#GeneralDiscussion" TARGET="_self"><B>General Discussion and Conclusions</B></A></TD> </TR> <TR><TD VALIGN="TOP"> <P ALIGN="CENTER"><A HREF="ExplanatoryStructure.htm#References" TARGET="_self"><B>References</B></A></TD> </TR> </TABLE> <P ALIGN="CENTER"> <a href="http://www.qksrv.net/click-908866-6818062" target="_blank" ><img src="http://www.qksrv.net/image-908866-6818062" width="468" height="60" alt="Visit PetnetOutlet" border="0"></a> <DIV ALIGN="center"> <TABLE ALIGN="CENTER" BORDER=0 CELLSPACING=0 CELLPADDING=0 WIDTH=628> <TR><TD VALIGN="TOP"> <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"><FONT SIZE=4><A NAME="ABSTRACT"></A>ABSTRACT</FONT></P></B> <P ALIGN="Left">Orthodox methodologies in sport- attribution research generally do not allow for variance in use of attribution <I>per se</I> to be investigated. Generally, attributions for pre- identified sporting outcomes are solicited from each athlete or research participant. Evidence is presented in this paper which shows a significant drop in attributions given for such events when specific prompts for explanation are removed. A qualitative methodology which allows athletes to  freely attribute to events of their own choosing is described. The method allows athletes to ascribe multiple causes to events (or multiple events to the same cause). Reliability data for coding texts in terms of explanatory function are provided. Results confirm previous evidence for an increased tendency to give explanations after negative outcomes, and are discussed in terms of the motivation of perceived control. <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"><FONT SIZE=4><A NAME="Introduction"></A>Introduction</FONT></P></B> <P>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Antaki (1988) calls attribution theory the  jewel in the crown of social cognition, and provides the following definition:  this is a loose federation of principles which revolve around the notion that people seek explanations of the world around them [& ] (p. 5). It has been established that these explanations follow certain biases and can be predicted (see reviews and collections of papers by Harris & Harvey, 1981; Harvey & Weary, 1984; Hewstone, 1983; Kelley & Michela, 1980). Testing predictions usually involves classifying attributions along dimensions proposed by Weiner (1974a; 1979; 1985; 1986). Weiner declared that the labelling of causal accounts was the  key to understanding of achievement strivings (Weiner 1974b, p. 5) and originally proposed a two- dimensional model (Weiner, Frieze, Kulka, Reed, Rest, & Rosenbaum, 1971; Weiner, Heckhausen, Meyer & Cook, 1972). These two dimensions [stable/ unstable (Stability) and internal/ external (Locus)] remain common to most attribution research. Further dimensions of controllability (Forsyth & McMillan, 1981; Weiner, 1979) and globality (Abramson, Seligman & Teasdale, 1978; Peterson, Semmel, von Baeyer, Abramson, Metalsky & Seligman, 1982) have since been recognized. <P>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; In a sporting context, research most commonly involves scales developed from the Weiner tradition. Russell (1982) developed the Causal Dimension Scale (CDS), which has evolved into the most widely used tool in sport- attribution work, the Causal Dimension Scale II (CDS II: McCauley, Duncan & Russell, 1992). CDS II involves soliciting open ended attributions from participants and then instructing them to rate these on 9 point Likert- type scales (Likert, 1932) along attributional dimensions. Mark, Mutrie, Brooks and Harris (1984) subsequently state that  the flawed attributional measures used in the past (the coding of attribution by researchers) have been replaced by  a more appropriate measure (CDS). Others scales incorporating the Locus and Stability dimensions include the Performance Outcome Survey (Leith & Prapavessis 1989); the Modified Attributional Style Questionnaire (Prapavessis & Carron 1988) and the Sport- attributional Style Scale (SASS; Hanrahan, Grove & Hattie 1989). <P>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; In terms of independent variables, researchers have often looked at event types (e.g. success/ failure events [Bukowski & Moore, 1980; Carron, 1984], events with differing degree/ margin of failure [Scanlan & Passer, 1980a]), ambiguous events [Spink & Roberts, 1980]). In addition, they have attempted to find distinct groups of people to gather attributions from [i.e. female athletes (Blucker & Hershberger, 1983; Dabrowska, 1993; Scanlan & Passer, 1980b; Sheedy, 1983); people involved in individual sports (Mark et al., 1984; Partington and Partington, 2002); members of teams (Bird and Brame, 1978; Mroczkowska, 1997)]. Variance in attributions across these variables is then used to refine models of cognitive processes. For an outline of further ways in which attributional dimensions can be predicted using performance variables, see Biddle and Hanrahan, 1998; McAuley and Blissmer, 2002. <P>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; With such measures, outcomes for which attributions are made are generally predefined. These outcomes can be included in the scales (e.g. SASS), or can be  real life events. For example, McAuley et al. (1992) asked people to  identify the primary cause of their winning or losing and then to code that along causal dimensions (p. 569). However, the focus on dimensional coding via fixed- response measures does not allow for the addressing of the wider questions of a) whether explanation will be forthcoming <I>at all</I> for a given event and b) whether athletes/ participants might link multiple causes and/or outcomes. This is important because it has been suggested that the act of attributing itself seems to be <I>strategic</I>. Specifically, the hypothesis that negative sporting outcomes generate a search for explanation (e.g. Weiner, 1986) cannot be investigated by <I>requiring</I> attributions of participants. <P>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Little analysis of whether the supplying of one <I>or more</I> causal statements for an outcome might vary systematically has been undertaken (for a general discussion of  multiple explananda , see White, 1992; 2000). Indeed some devices prohibit this and ask for the  single most likely cause [for example, the CDS II (McAuley et al. 1992); the Short Form of the Sport- attributional Style Scale (Hanrahan & Grove 1990b p. 97)]. It is not usually possible [for example, see the CDS (Russell 1982); the Sport- attributional Style Scale (Hanrahan et al., 1989)] for more than one outcome to be ascribed to a single cause. <P>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Two studies are described here. Study 1 demonstrates bias inherent in a  standard fixed- response attributional questionnaire. Study 2 describes work which allows for the structure of explanation (i.e. the way athletes link causes and outcomes) to be investigated via an interview- based methodology, as recommended by Biddle and Hanrahan (1998, p. 14) who state <Blockquote> although some form of interview is commonplace for qualitative enquiry, it has, to our knowledge, not been used in attribution research in sport and exercise contexts. This is a gap in the literature that needs to be filled .</Blockquote> <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"><FONT SIZE=4><A NAME="Study1"></A>Study 1</FONT></P></B> <P><U>Aims</U> <P>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; The aim of this study was to investigate whether traditional sport- attribution questionnaires elicit attributions in the absence of specific prompting. This question was approached by examining responses to pre- supplied  outcomes in the short form of the Sport- Attributional Style Questionnaire (SASS, Hanrahan & Grove, 1990a; 1990b) after the scale was adapted so that participants were not <I>required</I> to attribute causes. <P>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; First, it was predicted that participants would not universally explain the events in question when not forced to do so by the research methodology. Thus there would be differences between the number of attributions made in this study and the number required by the traditional application of the scale (i.e. the number of participants multiplied by the number of scale items). <P>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; A secondary prediction was that there would be more attributions for negative than positive events, as found by Weiner (1986). Weiner found that unexpected, negative or important outcomes would generate a search for reasons for the outcome. Thus the negative events in the questionnaire might be expected to generate more attributions (despite no specific prompts) than the positive ones. <P><U>Method</U> <P>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; The questionnaire used in this study was adapted from the short form of the Sport- attributional Style Questionnaire (Hanrahan & Grove, 1990a; 1990b). There are 10 items in the questionnaire, containing 5 negative and 5 positive events. The matched positive and negative items are as follows: <UL><LI><I>The coach compliments (criticises) your performance <LI>You are (not) selected for the starting team in an important competition <LI>The crowd cheers (boos) for you during a competition <LI>You perform very well (poorly) in a competition <LI>You have no (great) difficulty withstanding a demanding training session</I></UL> <P>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; First, participants are asked to  vividly imagine themselves in the situation in question , then they are asked to write down the single most likely <I>cause</I> if that event happened to them (for this type of instruction, see also Peterson et al., 1982). Instructions given in this study were as the original questionnaire, with one important difference. Instead of being asked to attribute causality to the events in question, participants were simply instructed: <I>write down the first thing you think of</I> in relation to each event. Participants thus had a choice as to whether they explained events or not. <P><U>Participants and procedure </U> <P>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Participants were 58 first- year Sport Science students from the Scottish School of Sport Studies, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow. There were 39 males and 19 females in the sample. Mean age for females was 18.8 years old (<I>SD</I> = 1.46); mean age for males was 20.23 years old (<I>SD</I> = 4.51). Participants were not told the purpose of the study before filling in the revised SASS. They agreed to take part in the study and were read the questionnaire instructions. They were given the opportunity to ask questions, but declined to do so. After filling in the questionnaire, the rationale for the study was explained to the participants and once more questions were invited. Contact details were provided so that participants could follow up interest in the study if they wished. <P><U>Reliability trial</U> <P>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; In order to demonstrate that attributions could be reliably identified (or not), a trial was conducted as follows. Three coders discussed how to code responses to a subset of questionnaires using the Leeds Attribution Coding System (LACS) manual (Stratton, Munton, Hanks, Heard, & Davidson, 1988). Some ambiguities were highlighted and decisions taken as to how to code these. A subset of 5 questionnaires (separate from those previously discussed) were coded independently (in separate rooms) by each coder. This gave 50 possible dichotomous (attribution/ no attribution) codes for each coder. No discussion or clarification was asked for or received during the trial itself. Contingency tables for each  pair of coders were drawn up (giving three tables in total). In this way 3 separate indices of concordance and Kappa coefficients (Cohen, 1960; Fleiss, 1971) were computed. The results for the three paired comparisons are shown in Table 1. <P> </TR></TD></TABLE></DIV> <table ALIGN="CENTER" class=MsoTableGrid border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 style='border-collapse:collapse;border:none;mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt;mso-yfti-tbllook:480;mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-border-insideh:.5pt solid windowtext;mso-border-insidev:.5pt solid windowtext'> <tr style='mso-yfti-irow:0'> <td width=630 colspan=3 valign=top style='width:5.25in;border:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal><b style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'><span style='layout-grid-mode:line'>Table 1.<span style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span><u>Index of concordance and Kappa coefficients in r</u></span><u>eliability trial for Study 1</u>.</b><o:p></o:p></p> </td> </tr> <tr style='mso-yfti-irow:1'> <td width=210 valign=top style='width:1.75in;border:solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top:none;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal align=center style='text-align:center'><b style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'><span style='layout-grid-mode:line'>Coding pair <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> </td> <td width=210 valign=top style='width:1.75in;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal align=center style='text-align:center'><b style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'><span style='layout-grid-mode:line'>Index of concordance (%)<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> </td> <td width=210 valign=top style='width:1.75in;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal align=center style='text-align:center'><b style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'><span style='layout-grid-mode:line'>Kappa (</span></b><b style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'><span style='font-family: Symbol;mso-ascii-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-hansi-font-family:"Times New Roman"; layout-grid-mode:line;mso-char-type:symbol;mso-symbol-font-family:Symbol'><span style='mso-char-type:symbol;mso-symbol-font-family:Symbol'>K</span></span><span style='layout-grid-mode:line'>)<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> </td> </tr> <tr style='mso-yfti-irow:2'> <td width=210 valign=top style='width:1.75in;border:solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top:none;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal align=center style='text-align:center'><span style='layout-grid-mode:line'>Coders X and Y<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td width=210 valign=top style='width:1.75in;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal align=center style='text-align:center'><span style='layout-grid-mode:line'>43/ 50 (86%)<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td width=210 valign=top style='width:1.75in;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal align=center style='text-align:center'><span style='layout-grid-mode:line'>.714 <o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style='mso-yfti-irow:3'> <td width=210 valign=top style='width:1.75in;border:solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top:none;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal align=center style='text-align:center'><span style='layout-grid-mode:line'>Coders X and Z<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td width=210 valign=top style='width:1.75in;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal align=center style='text-align:center'><span style='layout-grid-mode:line'>41/50 (82%) <o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td width=210 valign=top style='width:1.75in;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal align=center style='text-align:center'><span style='layout-grid-mode:line'>.632<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style='mso-yfti-irow:4'> <td width=210 valign=top style='width:1.75in;border:solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top:none;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal align=center style='text-align:center'><span style='layout-grid-mode:line'>Coders Y and Z<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td width=210 valign=top style='width:1.75in;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal align=center style='text-align:center'><span style='layout-grid-mode:line'>42/50 (84%) <o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td width=210 valign=top style='width:1.75in;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal align=center style='text-align:center'><span style='layout-grid-mode:line'>.678<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style='mso-yfti-irow:5;mso-yfti-lastrow:yes'> <td width=210 valign=top style='width:1.75in;border:solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top:none;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal align=center style='text-align:center'><i style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span style='layout-grid-mode:line'>Average <o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td width=210 valign=top style='width:1.75in;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal align=center style='text-align:center'><i style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span style='layout-grid-mode:line'>126/ 150 (84%) <o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td width=210 valign=top style='width:1.75in;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal align=center style='text-align:center'><span style='layout-grid-mode:line'>.675<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> </table> <P> <DIV ALIGN="center"><TABLE ALIGN="CENTER" BORDER=0 CELLSPACING=0 CELLPADDING=0 WIDTH=628><TR><TD VALIGN="TOP"> <P>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; It can be seen from Table 1 that the overall raw agreement was 84%, and the average Kappa coefficient was .675. Disagreement mainly centered on items from which attributions might be inferred. An example would be: <UL><LI>You have no difficulty withstanding a demanding training session <I>Make it more demanding</I></UL> <P>This response implies that the  no difficulty could be explained by the sessions being too easy, though this is not stated explicitly. These cases were included as <I>attributional</I> in the main analysis. In this way, the test of the first hypothesis was as rigorous as possible, [i.e. there would be an increased chance of a  type II error (Robson, 1993 p. 351)]. The final step was the recoding of all 58 interview schedules using the (consensual) definitions reached during the reliability trial. <P><U>Results of Study 1</U> <P>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; In order to test the prediction that responses would be  less attributional than during normal use of the scale, the matched positive and negative events were included together, giving 10 possible attributions for each of the 58 participants, and 580 in total. The frequencies of the attributional responses (i.e. when an attribution was made for the supplied events in the usual manner) are shown in Table 2. Included for comparison are the expected frequencies from the normal use of the SASS, where one attribution per participant per item is required. <P> </TR></TD></TABLE></DIV> <table ALIGN="CENTER" class=MsoTableGrid border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 style='border-collapse:collapse;border:none;mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt;mso-yfti-tbllook:480;mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-border-insideh:.5pt solid windowtext;mso-border-insidev:.5pt solid windowtext'> <tr style='mso-yfti-irow:0'> <td width=691 colspan=12 valign=top style='width:414.65pt;border:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal><b style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'>Table 2.<span style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span><u>Frequency of <i style='mso-bidi-font-style: normal'>unprompted</i> attributions given using the revised version of the SASS during Study 1 (<i style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'>N</i> = 580)</u>.</b><o:p></o:p></p> </td> </tr> <tr style='mso-yfti-irow:1'> <td width=91 valign=top style='width:54.6pt;border:solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top:none;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal><b style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'>Item<o:p></o:p></b></p> </td> <td width=54 valign=top style='width:32.5pt;border-top:none;border-left:none; border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal><b style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'>1<o:p></o:p></b></p> </td> <td width=54 valign=top style='width:32.55pt;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal><b style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'>2<o:p></o:p></b></p> </td> <td width=54 valign=top style='width:32.55pt;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal><b style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'>3<o:p></o:p></b></p> </td> <td width=54 valign=top style='width:32.55pt;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal><b style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'>4<o:p></o:p></b></p> </td> <td width=54 valign=top style='width:32.55pt;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal><b style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'>5<o:p></o:p></b></p> </td> <td width=54 valign=top style='width:32.55pt;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal><b style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'>6<o:p></o:p></b></p> </td> <td width=54 valign=top style='width:32.55pt;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal><b style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'>7<o:p></o:p></b></p> </td> <td width=54 valign=top style='width:32.55pt;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal><b style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'>8<o:p></o:p></b></p> </td> <td width=54 valign=top style='width:32.55pt;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal><b style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'>9<o:p></o:p></b></p> </td> <td width=54 valign=top style='width:32.55pt;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal><b style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'>10<o:p></o:p></b></p> </td> <td width=58 valign=top style='width:34.6pt;border-top:none;border-left:none; border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal><b style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'>Total<o:p></o:p></b></p> </td> </tr> <tr style='mso-yfti-irow:2'> <td width=91 valign=top style='width:54.6pt;border:solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top:none;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal>Expected<o:p></o:p></p> </td> <td width=54 valign=top style='width:32.5pt;border-top:none;border-left:none; border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal>58<o:p></o:p></p> </td> <td width=54 valign=top style='width:32.55pt;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal>58<o:p></o:p></p> </td> <td width=54 valign=top style='width:32.55pt;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal>58<o:p></o:p></p> </td> <td width=54 valign=top style='width:32.55pt;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal>58<o:p></o:p></p> </td> <td width=54 valign=top style='width:32.55pt;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal>58<o:p></o:p></p> </td> <td width=54 valign=top style='width:32.55pt;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal>58<o:p></o:p></p> </td> <td width=54 valign=top style='width:32.55pt;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal>58<o:p></o:p></p> </td> <td width=54 valign=top style='width:32.55pt;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal>58<o:p></o:p></p> </td> <td width=54 valign=top style='width:32.55pt;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal>58<o:p></o:p></p> </td> <td width=54 valign=top style='width:32.55pt;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal>58<o:p></o:p></p> </td> <td width=58 valign=top style='width:34.6pt;border-top:none;border-left:none; border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal>580<o:p></o:p></p> </td> </tr> <tr style='mso-yfti-irow:3;mso-yfti-lastrow:yes'> <td width=91 valign=top style='width:54.6pt;border:solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top:none;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal>Actual<o:p></o:p></p> </td> <td width=54 valign=top style='width:32.5pt;border-top:none;border-left:none; border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal>31<o:p></o:p></p> </td> <td width=54 valign=top style='width:32.55pt;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal>3<o:p></o:p></p> </td> <td width=54 valign=top style='width:32.55pt;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal>7<o:p></o:p></p> </td> <td width=54 valign=top style='width:32.55pt;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal>4<o:p></o:p></p> </td> <td width=54 valign=top style='width:32.55pt;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal>26<o:p></o:p></p> </td> <td width=54 valign=top style='width:32.55pt;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal>8<o:p></o:p></p> </td> <td width=54 valign=top style='width:32.55pt;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal>28<o:p></o:p></p> </td> <td width=54 valign=top style='width:32.55pt;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal>4<o:p></o:p></p> </td> <td width=54 valign=top style='width:32.55pt;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal>21<o:p></o:p></p> </td> <td width=54 valign=top style='width:32.55pt;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal>25<o:p></o:p></p> </td> <td width=58 valign=top style='width:34.6pt;border-top:none;border-left:none; border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal>157<o:p></o:p></p> </td> </tr> </table> <P> <DIV ALIGN="center"><TABLE ALIGN="CENTER" BORDER=0 CELLSPACING=0 CELLPADDING=0 WIDTH=628><TR><TD VALIGN="TOP"> <P>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; It can be seen from Table 2 that 27% of cases (157 out of 580) generated an attributional response when this was not specifically demanded by the device. Statistical analysis of these results took place using the Chi- square goodness of fit test. The results of this analysis showed the drop in the number of attributions made when the SASS was revised so that attributions were not <I>required</I> by the instructions was significant (<I>X<sup>2</SUP></I> = 242.780; <I>df </I> = 1; <I>p</I> < .001). It should be noted that this effect holds true for both positive and negative items, despite a significant difference in the number of attributions made for each (see below). Both types of item generated significantly less explanation when participants were free to decide whether to explain them (with just 15% of positive items and 39% of negative items yielding an attributional response). <P>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; A secondary prediction was that negative items would generate more attributions than positive ones. The frequencies of the attributional responses for positive and negative items can be seen in Table 2, by noting the respective totals for odd numbered items (negative) and even numbered items (positive). 44 (28%) of the attributions given were made in relation to the positive questionnaire items, with 113 (72%) given for negative items. Once more, Chi- square analysis showed a significant difference with more attribution for negative events (<I>X<sup>2</SUP></I> = 30.325; <I>df </I> = 1; <I>p</I> < .001). <P><U>Discussion of of study 1</U> <P>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Hanrahan and Grove (1990a) describe the Sport- attributional Style Scale (SASS). This is a questionnaire which measures sport-related attributional style for both positive and negative events. The questionnaire was used here because it is typical in the field. Tests of the scale essentially show how reliable it is, with one proviso. Attributions are required of participants. As Lau and Russell (1980) recognise,  the use of closed- end rating scales to gather attribution data (as is typically done in attribution research) generally precludes the possibility of participants [..] simply not making causal attributions& . . (p. 31). <SUP> </SUP> Antaki and Naji (1987) stressed that  Attribution work tends to address the information- processing mechanisms at work in the identification of causes for events. Questions about people s choice of <I>which</I> events to explain are currently relatively unresearched (p. 119). <P>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; This study tested the simple question of whether, where responses <I>but not necessarily attributions</I> are required, the events supplied would be explained. <SUP> </SUP> A significant fall in the number of items explained was observed where explanation was not specifically requested. This effect was significant for both positive and negative items. <P>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; However, negative events did seem to prompt more attribution (i.e. to be <I>inherently</I> more  consequential than positive ones) in a way that confirms previous research (e.g. Weiner, 1986a). This result is further justification for not assuming attributions will be meaningful when  forced in relation to pre- supplied events. If there are biases in certain events in terms of the likelihood that they will be explained, then it seems inappropriate to make people attribute to positive and negative events <I>in equal measure</I>. <P>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Finally, the most important result of this study may, paradoxically, be the fact that  free response attributions (albeit  only 157 for 580 supplied events) <I>were indeed identified</I>. If people will attribute without being  forced to do so, this seems to invalidate one basic rationale for using fixed response methodologies. This legitimizes attributional research which does not involve asking <I>why</I>? <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"><FONT SIZE=4><A NAME="Study2"></A>Study 2</FONT></P></B> <P><U>Aims</U> <P>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; The aim of this study was to establish whether attributions could be identified reliably from transcripts of post- performance interviews which did not contain specific prompts for explanation. Importantly, single attributions for multiple outcomes (or vice versa) might then be analysed, in order to test the prediction that athletes would  freely offer more explanation after negative outcomes, as in study 1. <P><U>Method</U> <P>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; The general methodology employed was that of semi- structured interview and qualitative data analysis, which was recently recognized as an under- used methodology in the sport- attribution field (Biddle & Hanrahan, 1998). Because of the lack of a standardized instrument for dealing with athletes discourse, the methodology was adapted from that of Stratton et al. (1988), who designed the Leeds Attributional Coding System (LACS) in order to classify reliably attributions in discourse in a family therapy setting (see also Munton, Silvester, Stratton & Hanks, 1999; Stratton & Bromley, 1999). As in the LACS method: Interviews with participants were taped and data transcribed verbatim; criteria for attributional statements were developed so they could be identified in the transcripts; no direct prompts for attributional statements were made during interviews, so that, as far as possible, these could be described as  naturalistic ; reliability data are provided. <P>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; The process of identifying attributional items was adopted from the LACS. Stratton et al. (1988) state:  we are [..] searching the transcript for any cases in which there is a clear indication & about the cause of any kind of outcome (p. 44). Stratton et al. (op. cit.) go on to describe how an attributional statement includes a cause, a link and an outcome. Antaki and Naji (1987) identified attributions based solely on variants of the  connective (i.e. link) <I>because</I> (or  <I>cos</I>), arguing this is the most frequently used causal link (Altenberg, 1984). However, Harvey, Yarkin, Lightner and Town (1980) used  phrases or clauses denoting <I>or connoting </I> causality . Similarly, in this case it was decided to include stated or <I>implied</I> causal relationships, because we cannot assume links will be explicitly causal [see Quirck, Greenbaum, Leech & Svartik (1985) for a comprehensive list of  causal connectives ]. In this way four types of attribution were identified (causal statements are in italics and links are underlined). <P ALIGN="CENTER">Type 1 <U>Single causal statement- link- single outcome statement</U> <P>This is the simplest model and is essentially the starting point for any attributional analysis. An example would be: <OL><LI><I>it was raining</I> <LI>so I played badly </OL> <P ALIGN="CENTER">Type 2 <U>Single causal statement- links- multiple outcome statement </U> <P>The second type of item still involves a single causal statement. An example would be: <OL><LI><I>it was raining</I> <LI><U>so</U> I played badly <LI><U>and</U> then play was suspended </OL> <P ALIGN="center"><FONT SIZE=2>Note: 2 and 3 are coded as distinct outcomes of 1 </FONT> <P ALIGN="CENTER">Type 3 <U>Multiple causal statements- links- single outcome statement</U> <P>The third type of item now involves more than one causal statement. However, we now return to a case where we have a single outcome statement. An example would be: <OL><LI><I>I was tired </I> <LI><U>and</U> <I>I was playing away from home </I> <LI><U>so</U> I lost</OL> <P ALIGN="center"><FONT SIZE=2>Note: 1 and 2 appear to go together to explain 3 </FONT> <P ALIGN="CENTER">Type 4 <U>Multiple causal statements- links- multiple outcome statements </U> <P>In type 4 items, more than one statement performs an explanatory function and more than one statement is explained. In the simplest case, a  dual function statement is both cause and outcome. An example would be. <OL><LI><I>it was raining</I> <LI><U>so</U> <I>I played bad </I> <LI><U>so</U> (I) felt miserable</OL> <P ALIGN="center"><FONT SIZE=2>Note: 2 appears to be explained by 1 and, in turn, explains 3 </FONT> <P><U>Attribution Scores</U> <P>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; A number can be computed for each type of attribution denoting the ratio of outcome to causal statements. The ratio is calculated by dividing <I>the number of outcome statements in an item by the number of causal statements used to explain them</I>. For each item, the Attribution Score is then: sum of outcome statements / sum of causal statements. Type 1 items by definition have a score of 1, as one causal statement is always matched by one outcome statement. Type 2 items have a score of > 1 (2 in the case shown). As there is only one causal statement, the denominator in the formula will be 1, and the score will equal the number of outcome statements. Type three items have a score of < 1 (.5 in the case shown). The number of outcome statements is one, thus the numerator will be 1 and the score will depend on the number of causal statements. Type four items can have a score which is 1, < 1 or > 1, depending on the number of causal statements and outcome statements involved. The simplest form of Type four item shown has a score of 1 (two each of causal and outcome statements). <P><U>Reliability trial</U> <P>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; As in the previous trial, coders operated independently (in separate rooms). No discussion or clarification was asked for or received during the trial itself. Three coders (the principle researcher (coder X) and two research assistants (coders Y and Z) discussed a subset of interview transcripts in terms of the definitions of attributional items in LACS. Some ambiguities were highlighted and decisions taken as to how to code these. Coder X proceeded to code all transcripts. Coders Y and Z were then presented with groups of statements <SUP> </SUP> containing 16 attributional items (as originally coded) and asked to decide how causal and outcome statements were linked. Contingency tables were drawn up for each decision tested. Each decision made by coder X was tested against those of coders Y and Z, then those of coder Y were tested against those of coder Z. In this way a total of 127 binary comparisons were possible. Indices of concordance (Martin & Bateson, 1993) were computed for each paired comparison. Reliability data are presented in Table 3. <P> </TR></TD></TABLE></DIV> <table ALIGN="CENTER" class=MsoTableGrid border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 style='border-collapse:collapse;border:none;mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt;mso-yfti-tbllook:480;mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-border-insideh:.5pt solid windowtext;mso-border-insidev:.5pt solid windowtext'> <tr style='mso-yfti-irow:0'> <td width=488 colspan=2 valign=top style='width:292.5pt;border:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal><b style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'><span style='layout-grid-mode:line'>Table 3. <u>Index of concordance in </u></span><u>reliability trial for study 2</u>.</b><o:p></o:p></p> </td> </tr> <tr style='mso-yfti-irow:1'> <td width=225 valign=top style='width:135.0pt;border:solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top:none;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal align=center style='text-align:center'><b style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'><span style='layout-grid-mode:line'>Paired comparison<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> </td> <td width=263 valign=top style='width:157.5pt;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal align=center style='text-align:center'><b style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'><span style='layout-grid-mode:line'>Index of concordance (%)<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> </td> </tr> <tr style='mso-yfti-irow:2'> <td width=225 valign=top style='width:135.0pt;border:solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top:none;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal align=center style='text-align:center'><span style='layout-grid-mode:line'>Coders X and Y<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td width=263 valign=top style='width:157.5pt;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal align=center style='text-align:center'><span style='layout-grid-mode:line'>32/43 (74%)<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style='mso-yfti-irow:3'> <td width=225 valign=top style='width:135.0pt;border:solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top:none;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal align=center style='text-align:center'><span style='layout-grid-mode:line'>Coders X and Z<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td width=263 valign=top style='width:157.5pt;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal align=center style='text-align:center'><span style='layout-grid-mode:line'>29/42 (69%)<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style='mso-yfti-irow:4'> <td width=225 valign=top style='width:135.0pt;border:solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top:none;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal align=center style='text-align:center'><span style='layout-grid-mode:line'>Coders Y and Z<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td width=263 valign=top style='width:157.5pt;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal align=center style='text-align:center'><span style='layout-grid-mode:line'>35/42 (83%)<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style='mso-yfti-irow:5;mso-yfti-lastrow:yes'> <td width=225 valign=top style='width:135.0pt;border:solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top:none;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal align=center style='text-align:center'><i style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span style='layout-grid-mode:line'>Average<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td width=263 valign=top style='width:157.5pt;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal align=center style='text-align:center'><i style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span style='layout-grid-mode:line'>96/127 (76%)<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> </tr> </table> <P> <DIV ALIGN="center"><TABLE ALIGN="CENTER" BORDER=0 CELLSPACING=0 CELLPADDING=0 WIDTH=628><TR><TD VALIGN="TOP"> <P>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; It can be seen from Table 3 that the index of concordance (Martin & Bateson, 1993) was 96/ 127 (76%), thus satisfying reliability criteria (Borg & Gall, 1989). Thus coders could reliably identify each statement as explanatory, explained or non-attributional with respect to other statements in the samples. Once Attribution Scores had been computed based on the decisions made by each coder, it was possible to compute rank- order correlations for the paired comparisons on Attribution Scores. These are shown in Table 4. <P> </TR></TD></TABLE></DIV> <table ALIGN="CENTER" class=MsoTableGrid border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 style='border-collapse:collapse;border:none;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-yfti-tbllook:480;mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;mso-border-insideh: .5pt solid windowtext;mso-border-insidev:.5pt solid windowtext'> <tr style='mso-yfti-irow:0'> <td width=737 colspan=4 valign=top style='width:441.9pt;border:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoNormal><a name="_Toc44830883"><b style='mso-bidi-font-weight: normal'><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;layout-grid-mode:line'>Table 4. <u>Spearman s rank order correlations of Attribution Scores for three coders in reliability trial </u></span></b></a><b style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'><u><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;layout-grid-mode:line'>for Study 2.</span></u><o:p></o:p></b></p> </td> </tr> <tr style='mso-yfti-irow:1'> <td width=184 valign=top style='width:110.45pt;border:solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top:none;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoBodyText2 align=center style='text-align:center;line-height:normal'><span style='font-size:10.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman";layout-grid-mode:line; text-decoration:none;text-underline:none'><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p></span></p> </td> <td width=184 valign=top style='width:110.5pt;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoBodyText2 align=center style='text-align:center;line-height:normal'><span style='font-size:10.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman";layout-grid-mode:line; text-decoration:none;text-underline:none'>Coder X<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td width=184 valign=top style='width:110.45pt;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoBodyText2 align=center style='text-align:center;line-height:normal'><span style='font-size:10.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman";layout-grid-mode:line; text-decoration:none;text-underline:none'>Coder Y<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td width=184 valign=top style='width:110.5pt;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoBodyText2 align=center style='text-align:center;line-height:normal'><span style='font-size:10.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman";layout-grid-mode:line; text-decoration:none;text-underline:none'>Coder Z<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style='mso-yfti-irow:2'> <td width=184 valign=top style='width:110.45pt;border:solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top:none;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoBodyText2 align=center style='text-align:center;line-height:normal'><span style='font-size:10.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman";layout-grid-mode:line; text-decoration:none;text-underline:none'>Coder X<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td width=184 valign=top style='width:110.5pt;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoBodyText2 align=center style='text-align:center;line-height:normal'><i style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span style='font-size:10.0pt;font-family: "Times New Roman";layout-grid-mode:line;font-weight:normal;text-decoration: none;text-underline:none'>1.000<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td width=184 valign=top style='width:110.45pt;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoBodyText2 align=center style='text-align:center;line-height:normal'><span style='font-size:10.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman";layout-grid-mode:line; font-weight:normal;text-decoration:none;text-underline:none'>.676**<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td width=184 valign=top style='width:110.5pt;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoBodyText2 align=center style='text-align:center;line-height:normal'><span style='font-size:10.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman";layout-grid-mode:line; font-weight:normal;text-decoration:none;text-underline:none'>.539*<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style='mso-yfti-irow:3'> <td width=184 valign=top style='width:110.45pt;border:solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top:none;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoBodyText2 align=center style='text-align:center;line-height:normal'><span style='font-size:10.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman";layout-grid-mode:line; text-decoration:none;text-underline:none'>Coder Y<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td width=184 valign=top style='width:110.5pt;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoBodyText2 align=center style='text-align:center;line-height:normal'><span style='font-size:10.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman";layout-grid-mode:line; font-weight:normal;text-decoration:none;text-underline:none'>.676**<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td width=184 valign=top style='width:110.45pt;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoBodyText2 align=center style='text-align:center;line-height:normal'><i style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span style='font-size:10.0pt;font-family: "Times New Roman";layout-grid-mode:line;font-weight:normal;text-decoration: none;text-underline:none'>1.000<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> <td width=184 valign=top style='width:110.5pt;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoBodyText2 align=center style='text-align:center;line-height:normal'><span style='font-size:10.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman";layout-grid-mode:line; font-weight:normal;text-decoration:none;text-underline:none'>.828**<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style='mso-yfti-irow:4'> <td width=184 valign=top style='width:110.45pt;border:solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top:none;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoBodyText2 align=center style='text-align:center;line-height:normal'><span style='font-size:10.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman";layout-grid-mode:line; text-decoration:none;text-underline:none'>Coder Z<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td width=184 valign=top style='width:110.5pt;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoBodyText2 align=center style='text-align:center;line-height:normal'><span style='font-size:10.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman";layout-grid-mode:line; font-weight:normal;text-decoration:none;text-underline:none'>.539*<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td width=184 valign=top style='width:110.45pt;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoBodyText2 align=center style='text-align:center;line-height:normal'><span style='font-size:10.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman";layout-grid-mode:line; font-weight:normal;text-decoration:none;text-underline:none'>.828**<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td width=184 valign=top style='width:110.5pt;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoBodyText2 align=center style='text-align:center;line-height:normal'><i style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span style='font-size:10.0pt;font-family: "Times New Roman";layout-grid-mode:line;font-weight:normal;text-decoration: none;text-underline:none'>1.000<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> </td> </tr> <tr style='mso-yfti-irow:5;mso-yfti-lastrow:yes'> <td width=737 colspan=4 valign=top style='width:441.9pt;border:solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top:none;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <p class=MsoBodyText2 style='line-height:normal'><span style='font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman";layout-grid-mode:line;font-weight:normal; text-decoration:none;text-underline:none'>** Correlation (2-tailed) is significant at the .01 level<BR>* Correlation (2-tailed) is significant at the .05 level<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> </table> <P> <DIV ALIGN="cent